LAND FORCES 2045

The 8th edition of the Vauban Sessions, organised jointly by the 1st French Corps and Forward Global, focused on the theme “Land Forces 2045”. Held under the patronage of the French Army Chief of Staff, the event gathered senior military leaders from NATO, the European Union, and national armed forces to discuss the future of land warfare.

Representatives from 20 NATO member states attended, including around 50 general officers and the Swedish Army Chief of Staff. The discussions highlighted the profound transformation of modern warfare, driven by rapid technological acceleration, the growing centrality of data, and the enduring importance of human resilience and operational mass.

Transparency, Attrition, and the Return of Mass

A major theme of the conference was the increasing “transparency” of the battlefield. The widespread use of low-cost technologies such as FPV drones, field sensors, loitering munitions, and advanced satellite observation systems has significantly increased the visibility of military activities.

Traditional concentrations of force — including headquarters, logistics hubs, and troop formations — are now highly vulnerable to rapid detection and precision strikes. As a result, armed forces must adopt more dispersed, mobile, and adaptive operational structures while maintaining effective command and communication capabilities.

Survivability increasingly depends on reducing operational signatures, decentralising activities, and integrating protective measures such as anti-drone systems and advanced camouflage.

The discussions also emphasised the return of “mass” as a decisive factor in high-intensity warfare. Recent conflicts have demonstrated that attrition remains central to military operations. Sustained combat requires not only advanced technologies but also robust logistics, significant stockpiles, and the capacity to regenerate forces over time.

This requirement presents major challenges for Western societies facing demographic decline and growing competition for skilled personnel in fields such as cyber operations, software engineering, and drone warfare. Several participants noted that reserve systems, volunteer programmes, and even forms of conscription may need to be reconsidered.

From Network-Centric Warfare to Data-Centric Operations

The conference identified a fundamental transition from traditional network-centric warfare toward data-centric military operations.

Where previous interoperability models depended on shared communication systems and compatible infrastructures, future military architectures are expected to rely on decentralised digital ecosystems built around open architectures and rapid data exchange.

In this emerging environment, sensors, platforms, and weapon systems will be interconnected dynamically across domains and national boundaries. Information collected by one system could immediately be exploited by another, significantly compressing targeting and decision-making timelines.

Artificial intelligence is playing an increasingly central role in this transformation. AI systems can process massive volumes of information, identify patterns, and support commanders with actionable insights. However, participants stressed that AI must remain a support tool rather than replacing human judgment.

Despite advances in software and algorithms, robotics and physical automation continue to face important limitations, especially in complex environments such as urban terrain.

“Tomorrow, the battle will be around data, the capability to reach data, analyse it, put it together, and act before your adversary does.”

Human Capacity and the Limits of Technology

While technology offers significant operational advantages, the discussions repeatedly stressed the importance of the human factor.

Future systems must be designed not only for performance but also for usability under extreme stress conditions. Excessively complex technologies risk overwhelming operators and creating cognitive overload during combat operations.

Autonomous and semi-autonomous systems can enhance operational effectiveness, but they must support rather than burden soldiers and commanders. The objective is to augment human capabilities while preserving clarity, control, and responsibility in decision-making.

Participants also highlighted the importance of physical and psychological resilience. Future combat environments are expected to expose personnel to continuous stress and persistent threats, making force protection and endurance essential components of military capability.

This evolution will require new approaches to training and education, with greater emphasis on technological literacy, critical thinking, and understanding the limitations of automated systems.

Interoperability, Industry, and Societal Integration

Interoperability emerged as an operational necessity for future military operations.

Participants noted that interoperability extends beyond technical compatibility. Shared doctrine, common operational understanding, and effective communication under pressure are equally important.

The discussions also warned against excessive standardisation, arguing for a balanced approach that preserves national flexibility while ensuring operational coherence within multinational coalitions.

“Interoperability is no longer a technical ambition but an operational necessity.”

The conference underlined the need to transform traditional defence procurement models. Long acquisition cycles and rigid specifications are increasingly incompatible with the pace of technological evolution.

Instead, military capabilities should evolve through iterative development models allowing continuous software updates and modular upgrades. Closer cooperation between armed forces, defence industries, SMEs, and civilian technology companies will be essential to accelerate innovation.

Beyond the military-industrial relationship, participants advocated for a broader “whole-of-society” approach to defence. Long-term resilience depends not only on armed forces but also on secure supply chains, industrial capacity, infrastructure protection, and societal cohesion.

Conclusion — Shaping the Forces of 2045

The overarching conclusion of the Vauban Sessions 2026 was that future warfare cannot be predicted precisely, but the strategic choices made today will shape the military capabilities of 2045.

Military planners must prepare for a wide spectrum of scenarios, ranging from high-intensity conflict to hybrid operations and sub-threshold confrontations. Technological disruption is transforming the tempo and conduct of military operations, but doctrines, organisations, and concepts of employment often evolve more slowly.

Future forces must therefore be technologically advanced while remaining adaptable, resilient, and capable of operating across multiple domains and operational contexts.

The discussions concluded that success in future warfare will depend on balancing innovation with practicality, speed with control, and technological advancement with human judgment.

“The aim is not to predict 2045 precisely, but to shape the route towards it.”

TOWARDS VICTORY: PLAN SMARTER, ACT FASTER, STRIKE HARDER

The 2025 Vauban Sessions took place at a time of intensifying geopolitical tensions and the renewed prospect of high-intensity conflict in Europe. Senior military leaders from across NATO and the EU gathered in Lille to confront the urgent need to adapt Command & Control (C2) structures, operational concepts and strategic planning to a rapidly evolving security environment. The overarching challenge was framed around the imperative to plan smarter, act faster, and strike harder in an era demanding both resilience and innovation. This year’s debates focused on enhancing resilience not just within military organisations but across societies, recognising that operational effectiveness depends equally on societal readiness, force regeneration, and the ability to sustain prolonged operations. Participants insisted on the necessity of strengthening coalition force generation, improving logistics, and aligning defence industrial capacity with the realities of modern warfare.

The sessions highlighted enduring barriers—ranging from infrastructure and regulation to interoperability and information-sharing – which must be overcome to deliver credible, large-scale deterrence and defence. The integration of advanced digital technologies – spanning mission command systems, AI, and unmanned platforms – was identified as a key enabler for agile and effective C2. Speakers however cautioned that technology must be paired with robust leadership, adaptability, and the development of civil-military partnerships.

The conclusions and lessons shared at the Vauban Citadel reflect a collective commitment to accelerating the transformation of allied defence structures, aimed at ensuring readiness and survivability in an era of persistent uncertainty.

Strengthening resilience and preparedness

A central theme of the conference was the imperative to build strategic resilience at every level – from individual soldiers to societies and institutions. Resilience is not merely a technical or organisational matter, but fundamentally a societal and psychological challenge. European societies, having enjoyed decades of peace, are now confronted with the need to mentally and materially re-adapt to the prospect of large-scale conflict. Individual and collective resilience are interdependent: individual readiness buys time for collective structures to respond, while societal preparedness underpins the endurance of military operations. Resilience must be conceived as a series of concentric circles, beginning with the individual and expanding to local, national, and international levels. This approach is necessary to absorb shocks, adapt to unforeseen scenarios, and recover rapidly after setbacks.

Another key point was the distinction between resilience and readiness. While readiness consists in having plans and mechanisms in place for known scenarios, resilience is about the capacity to adapt and respond to unexpected futures. The need to foster a shift in mindset, both within military organisations and across societies, was repeatedly highlighted. This includes preparing populations for the sacrifices and disruptions that high-intensity conflict may entail, and re establishing the societal contract which underpins national defence, potentially revisiting concepts such as conscription or national service to address anticipated attrition and sustain force levels.

Optimising force generation and projection

The conference devoted significant attention to the practical and strategic challenges of generating and projecting forces within a coalition framework. The lessons of recent exercises and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine provided a sobering backdrop: while NATO has made progress in planning and readiness, the ability to rapidly deploy and sustain large formations across Europe remains hampered by infrastructural, regulatory, and governance bottlenecks.

Speakers identified infrastructure as a persistent vulnerability. Despite investment, critical gaps remain in transportation networks, ports and corridors necessary for the rapid movement of troops and materiel. Administrative and regulatory obstacles – such as lengthy notification requirements for cross- border movements continue to impede military mobility, highlighting the need for a “military Schengen” to streamline procedures and reduce friction between nations. The discussions revealed that while top-down planning has produced comprehensive requirements, actual force generation and sustainment often fall short, particularly in logistics and support units. There was consensus that a bottom-up approach, leveraging the experience and plans of divisions and corps, is essential to align national capabilities with coalition requirements and to identify realistic solutions for sustainment and interoperability.

The importance of host nation support and the integration of civilian resources into military logistics were also emphasised. Given the scale of operations envisioned, military forces are increasingly dependent on civilian infrastructure and capabilities, necessitating robust coordination mechanisms at all levels. The need to build and maintain sufficient stocks – especially of ammunition and spare parts – was highlighted as a critical enabler of operational endurance. A more agile and collaborative approach to defence industrial policy is key for nations to diversify production, share technology, and reduce regulatory barriers to enable rapid scaling of war production if required.

Advancing technological integration and operational adaptation

Another major theme was the integration of new technologies into command structures and operational concepts. Digital transformation is not an end in itself, but a means to enhance operational effectiveness, survivability, and decision-making speed. The proliferation of digital tools, artificial intelligence, and unmanned systems offers significant opportunities, but also introduces new vulnerabilities and demands for energy, connectivity, and cybersecurity.

Modular and adaptable command post structures must balance the requirements for survivability—by reducing physical footprints and exposure – with the imperative of maintaining connectivity and situational awareness. The lessons from Ukraine and other recent conflicts reinforced the importance of dispersing command functions and leveraging digital networks to enable rapid reconfiguration and continuity of operations under attack.

The use of AI is fundamental to maintaining a competitive edge. AI-enabled systems can accelerate decision cycles and improve information flows, but their integration requires careful alignment with operational needs and robust safeguards against misuse. The challenge lies in aligning innovation with operational realities, in a market where the domination of a small number of large defence contractors can stifle effective innovation. A cultural shift toward planned, iterative innovation – driven by operational feedback and short engineering cycles – was advocated.
Leadership, training, and human factors remain as important as ever. While technological advances are critical, operational success ultimately depends on the quality, adaptability, and resilience of commanders and soldiers. The integration of new technologies must be accompanied by updated training standards, realistic exercises, and a willingness to challenge established doctrines and organisational cultures.